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The Living Encyclopedia
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reptile
Blue-Tongued Skink
Tiliqua scincoides
Blue-Tongued Skink species information.
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bird
Budgerigar
Melopsittacus undulatus
The budgerigar ( BUJ-Ér-ih-gar, -â É-ree-; Melopsittacus undulatus), also known as the common parakeet, shell parakeet or budgie ( BUJ-ee), is a small, long-tailed, seed-eating parrot native to Australia. Naturally, the species is green and yellow with black, scalloped markings on the nape, back, and wings. Budgies are bred in captivity with colouring of blues, whites, yellows, greys, and even with small crests. Juveniles and chicks are monomorphic (the sexes are visually indistinguishable), while adults are told apart by their cere colouring and their behaviour. The species is monotypic, meaning it is the only member of the genus Melopsittacus, which is the only genus in the tribe Melopsittacini. The budgerigar is closely related to lories and the fig parrots. The origin of the budgerigar's name is unclear. First recorded in 1805, budgerigars are popular pets around the world due to their small size, low cost, and ability to mimic human speech. They are the third most popular pet in the world, after the domesticated dog and cat. Budgies are nomadic flock parakeets that have been bred in captivity since the 19th century. In both the wild and in captivity, budgerigars breed opportunistically and in pairs. They are found wild throughout the drier parts of Australia, where they have survived harsh inland conditions for over five million years. Their success can be attributed to a nomadic lifestyle and their ability to breed while on the move. == Etymology == Several possible origins for the name budgerigar have been proposed. One origin could be that budgerigar may be a mispronunciation or alteration of the Gamilaraay word gidjirrigaa (Aboriginal pronunciation: [ÉĄÌiÉiriÉĄaË]) or gijirragaa from the Yuwaalaraay. Another possible origin is that budgerigar might be a modified form of budgery or boojery (Australian English slang for "good") and gar ("cockatoo"). While many references mention "good" as part of the meaning, and a few specify "good bird", it is quite possible that reports by those local to the region are more accurate in specifying the direct translation as "good food". Alternative spellings include budgerygah and betcherrygah, the latter used by Indigenous people of the Liverpool Plains in New South Wales. Alternative names for the budgerigar include the shell parrot or shell parakeet, the warbling grass parakeet, the canary parrot, the zebra parrot, the flight bird, and the scallop parrot. Although more often used as a common name for small parrots in the genus Agapornis, the name "lovebird" has been used for budgerigars, because of their habit of close perching, mutual preening, and their long term pair-bonds. The genus name Melopsittacus is coined from Ancient Greek, meaning "melodious parrot". The species name undulatus is Latin for "undulated" or "wave-patterned". == Taxonomy == The budgerigar was first described by George Shaw in 1805, and given its current binomial name by John Gould in 1840. The budgerigar was once proposed to be a link between the genera Neophema and Pezoporus, based on the barred plumage. However, recent phylogenetic studies using DNA sequences place the budgerigar very close to the lories (tribe Loriini) and the fig parrots (tribe Cyclopsittini). == Description == Wild budgerigars average 18 cm (7 in) long, weigh 30â40 grams (1.1â1.4 oz), 30 cm (12 in) in wingspan, and display a light green body colour, while their mantles display pitch-black mantle markings (blackish in fledglings and immatures) edged in clear yellow undulations. The forehead and face is yellow in adults. Prior to their adult plumage, young individuals have blackish stripes down to the cere in young individuals until around 3â4 months of age. They display small, iridescent blue-violet cheek patches and a series of three black spots across each side of their throat. The two outermost throat spots are situated at the base of each cheek patch. The tail is cobalt, and outside tail feathers display central yellow flashes. Their wings have greenish-black flight feathers and black coverts with yellow fringes along with central yellow flashes, which only become visible in flight or when the wings are outstretched. Bills are olive grey and legs blueish-grey, with zygodactyl toes. In their natural Australian habitat, budgerigars are noticeably smaller than those in captivity. This particular parrot species has been bred in many other colours and shades in captivity (e.g. blue, grey, grey-green, pieds, violet, white, yellow-blue). Pet store individuals will commonly be blue, green, or yellow. Like most parrot species, budgerigar plumage fluoresces under ultraviolet light â a phenomenon possibly related to courtship and mate selection. The colour of the cere (the area containing the nostrils) differs between the sexes, being a lavender/baby blue in males, pale brownish/white (non breeding) to brown (breeding) in females, and pink in immature birds of both sexes (usually of a more even purplish-pink colour in young males). Some female budgerigars develop brown cere only during breeding time, which later returns to the normal colour. Young females can often be identified by a subtle, chalky whiteness that starts around the nostrils. Males that are either albino, lutino, dark-eyed clear or recessive pied (Danish pied or harlequin) retain the immature purplish-pink cere colour for their entire lives. Mature males usually have a cere of light to dark blue, but in some particular colour mutations it can be periwinkle, lavender, purplish or pink â including dark-eyed clears, Danish pieds (recessive pieds) and inos, which usually display much rounder heads. Female budgerigars display more dominant behaviour compared to males of the species and may act aggressively towards them. Budgerigars have tetrachromatic colour vision, although all four classes of cone cells will not operate simultaneously unless under sunlight or a UV lamp. The ultraviolet spectrum brightens their feathers to attract mates. The throat spots in budgerigars reflect UV and can be used to distinguish individual birds. While ultraviolet light is essential to the good health of caged and pet birds, inadequate darkness or rest results in overstimulation. === Colour mutations === All captive budgerigars are divided into two basic series of colours; namely, white-based (blue, grey and white) and yellow-based (green, grey-green and yellow). Presently, at least 32 primary mutations (including violet) occur, enabling hundreds of possible secondary mutations (stable combined primary mutations) and colour varieties (unstable combined mutations). == Ecology == Budgerigars are nomadic and flocks move on from sites as environmental conditions change. Budgerigars are found in open habitats, primarily in scrublands, open woodlands, and grasslands of Australia. The birds are normally found in small flocks, but can form very large flocks under favourable conditions. The nomadic movement of the flocks is tied to the availability of food and water. Budgerigars have two distinct flight speeds which they are capable of switching between depending on the circumstance. Budgerigars sometimes swarm together in groups containing thousands of individuals. Drought can drive flocks into more wooded habitat or coastal areas. They feed on the seeds of spinifex and grass, and sometimes ripening wheat. Budgerigars feed primarily on grass seeds. The species also opportunistically depredates growing cereal crops and lawn grass seeds. Due to the low water content of the seeds they rely on the availability of fresh water. Outside of Australia, a population of naturalised feral budgerigars was present near St. Petersburg, Florida for over 50 years. Increased competition for nesting sites from European starlings and house sparrows is thought to be a primary cause of the Florida population declining from the 1980s, and this population died out in 2014. == Behaviour == === Breeding === Breeding in the wild generally takes place between June and September in northern Australia and between August and January in the south, although budgerigars are opportunistic breeders and respond to rains when grass seeds become most abundant. Budgerigars are monogamous and breed in large colonies throughout their range. They show signs of affection to their flockmates by preening or feeding one another. Budgerigars feed one another by eating the seeds themselves, and then regurgitating it into their flockmate's mouth. Populations in some areas have increased as a result of increased water availability at farms. Nests are made in holes in trees, fence posts or logs lying on the ground; the four to six eggs are incubated for 18â21 days, with the young fledging about 30 days after hatching. In the wild, virtually all parrot species require a hollow tree or a hollow log as a nest site. Budgerigars will typically breed in captivity when provided with a nest box. The eggs are typically one to two centimetres long and are pearl white without any colouration if fertile. Female budgerigars can lay eggs without a male partner, but these unfertilised eggs will not hatch. Females normally have a whitish tan cere; however, when the female is laying eggs, her cere turns a crusty brown colour. Certain female budgies may always keep a whitish tan cere or always keep a crusty brown cere regardless of breeding condition. A female budgerigar will lay her eggs on alternating days. After the first one, there is usually a two-day gap until the next. She will usually lay between four and eight eggs, which she will incubate (usually starting after laying her second or third) for about 21 days each. Females only leave their nests for very quick defecations, stretches and quick meals once they have begun incubating and are by then almost exclusively fed by their mate (usually at the nest's entrance). Females will not allow a male to enter the nest, unless he forces his way inside. Clutch size ranges from 6 to 8 chicks. There is evidence of same-sex sexual behaviour amongst male budgerigars. It was originally hypothesised that they did this as a form of "courtship practice" so they were better breeding partners for females; however, an inverse relationship exists between participation in same-sex behaviour and pairing success. === Chick health === Breeding difficulties arise for various reasons. Some chicks may die from diseases and attacks from adults. Other budgerigars (virtually always females) may fight over the nest box, attacking each other or a brood. Another problem may be the birds' beaks being under-lapped, where the lower mandible is above the upper mandible. Most health issues and physical abnormalities in budgerigars are genetic. Care should be taken that birds used for breeding are active, healthy and unrelated. Budgerigars that are related or have fatty tumours or other potential genetic health problems should not be allowed to breed. Parasites (lice, mites, worms) and pathogens (bacteria, fungi and viruses), are contagious and thus transmitted between individuals through either direct or indirect contact. In some cases, chicks will experience splay leg. This medical condition may be congenital or acquired through malnutrition. Chicks can be treated with splints although this method is not always successful in curing the affected bird. Preventative measures include using proper nesting box materials such as pine shavings and cleaning the nest box between uses. === Development === Eggs take about 18â20 days before they start hatching. The hatchlings are altricial â blind, naked, unable to lift their head and totally helpless, and their mother feeds them and keeps them warm constantly. Around 10 days of age, the chicks' eyes will open, and they will start to develop feather down. The appearance of down occurs at the age for closed banding of the chicks. They develop feathers around three weeks of age. (One can often easily note the colour mutation of the individual birds at this point.) At this stage of the chicks' development, the male usually has begun to enter the nest to help his female in caring for and feeding the chicks. Some budgerigar females, however, totally forbid the male from entering the nest and thus take the full responsibility of rearing the chicks until they fledge. Depending on the size of the clutch and most particularly in the case of single mothers, it may then be wise to transfer a portion of the hatchlings (or best of the fertile eggs) to another pair. The foster pair must already be in breeding mode and thus either at the laying or incubating stages, or already rearing hatchlings. As the chicks develop and grow feathers, they are able to be left on their own for longer periods of time. By the fifth week, the chicks are strong enough that both parents will be comfortable in staying out of the nest more. The youngsters will stretch their wings to gain strength before they attempt to fly. They will also help defend the box from enemies, mostly with their loud screeching. Young budgerigars typically fledge (leave the nest) around their fifth week of age and are usually completely weaned between six and eight weeks old. However, the age for fledging, as well as weaning, can vary slightly depending on the age and the number of surviving chicks. Generally speaking, the oldest chick is the first to be weaned. Although it is logically the last one to be weaned, the youngest chick is often weaned at a younger age than its older sibling(s). This can be a result of mimicking the actions of older siblings. Lone surviving chicks are often weaned at the youngest possible age as a result of having their parents' full attention and care. Hand-reared budgies may take slightly longer to wean than parent-raised chicks. Hand feeding is not routinely done with budgerigars, due to their small size and because young parent raised birds can be readily tamed. === Diet === In the wild and in domestic care, Budgerigars have a predominantly seed-based diet based upon their daily energy requirements. They would need a proper balance of carbohydrates, proteins, fat, vitamins, minerals, and water for their survival. Wild budgies eat a variety of seeds, fruits, berries, and vegetation. They would typically feed on or near the ground. What they eat varies with food availability during the different seasons or weather conditions. on the other hand, domesticated budgerigars can develop fatty-liver disease if their diet is only seed-based with no varied fruits or vegetables to help with the necessary nutrients. == Domestication and relationship with humans == According to some sources, budgies are the most popular species of pet birds in the world. In the U.S., budgies started becoming increasingly popular as a pet during the 1950s, at a time when previously canaries had been the most popular bird pet. Today budgies are considered to be the third most popular pet in the U.S. after dogs and cats. Cockatiels have in recent times become as popular as budgies. === Aviculture === The budgerigar has been bred in captivity since the 1850s. Breeders have worked to produce a variety of colour, pattern and feather mutations, including albino, blue, cinnamon-ino (lacewing), clearwing, crested, dark, greywing, opaline, pieds, spangled, dilute (suffused) and violet. "English budgerigars", more correctly called "show" or "exhibition budgerigars", are about twice as large as their wild counterparts and have puffier head feathers, giving them a boldly exaggerated look. The eyes and beak can be almost totally obscured by these fluffy head feathers. English budgerigars are typically more expensive than wild-type birds, and have a shorter life span of about seven to nine years. Breeders of English budgerigars show their birds at animal shows. Most captive budgerigars in the pet trade are more similar in size and body conformation to wild budgerigars. Budgerigars are social animals and require stimulation in the shape of toys and interaction with humans or with other budgerigars. Budgerigars, and especially females, will chew material such as wood. When a budgerigar feels threatened, it will try to perch as high as possible and to bring its feathers close against its body in order to appear thinner. Tame budgerigars can be taught to speak, whistle and play with humans. Both males and females sing and can learn to mimic sounds and words and do simple tricks, but singing and mimicry are more pronounced and better perfected in males. Females rarely learn to mimic more than a dozen words. Males can easily acquire vocabularies ranging from a few dozen to a hundred words. Pet males, especially those kept alone, are generally the best speakers. Budgerigars will chew on anything they can find to keep their beaks trimmed. Mineral blocks (ideally enriched with iodine), cuttlebone and soft wooden pieces are suitable for this activity. Cuttlebones also supply calcium, essential for the proper forming of eggs and bone solidity. In captivity, budgerigars live an average of five to eight years, but life spans of 15â20 years have been reported. The life span depends on breed, lineage, and health, being highly influenced by exercise and diet. Budgerigars have been known to cause "bird fancier's lung" in sensitive people, a type of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Apart from a handful of illnesses, diseases of the species are not transmittable to humans. === Mimicry === Budgerigars, like many other species of parrot, are able to mimic human speech. Puck, a male budgerigar owned by American Camille Jordan, holds the world record for the largest vocabulary of any bird, at 1,728 words. Puck died in 1994, with the record first appearing in the 1995 edition of Guinness World Records. The budgerigar "Disco" became Internet famous in 2013. Some of Disco's most repeated phrases included, "I am not a crook" and "Nobody puts baby bird in a corner!". == In popular culture == Small bathing suits for men, commonly referred to as togs or "Speedos", are informally called "budgie smugglers" in Australia. The phrase is humorously based on the appearance of the tight-fitting cloth around the male's genitals looking like a small budgie. The phrase was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2016. == Gallery == == See also == Budgerigar colour genetics Sparkie (budgerigar) Talking bird Whipper (budgerigar) == References == == Bibliography == Pranty, B. 2001. The Budgerigar in Florida: Rise and fall of an exotic psittacid. North American Birds 55: 389â397. Forshaw, Joseph M. & Cooper, William T. (1978): Parrots of the World (2nd ed). Landsdowne Editions, Melbourne Australia ISBN 0-7018-0690-7 Collar, N. J. (1997). Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). Pg. 384 in: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. eds. (1997). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 4. Sandgrouse to Cuckoos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-22-9 == Further reading == The dictionary definition of budgerigar at Wiktionary World Parrot Trust Parrot Encyclopedia â Species Profiles A True Ambassador: the Budgerigar Referenced article on budgerigars Budgerigar genome in Ensembl View the melUnd1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser
fish
Cobra Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
Cobra Guppy species information.
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fish
Delta Tail Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
Delta Tail Guppy species information.
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fish
Discus
Symphysodon aequifasciatus
The discus throw, also known as disc throw, is a track and field event in which the participant athlete throws an oblate spheroid weight â called a discus â in an attempt to mark a further distance than other competitors. It is an ancient sport, as demonstrated by the fifth-century-BC Myron statue Discobolus. Although not part of the current pentathlon, it was one of the events of the ancient Greek pentathlon, which can be dated back to at least 708 BC, and it is part of the modern decathlon.
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fish
Dumbo Ear Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
Dumbo Ear Guppy species information.
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bird
Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Eagle is the common name for certain large birds of prey within the family of the Accipitridae. While on a genetic level, only the subfamily Aquilinae comprises "true eagles", many other species are commonly referred to as eagles, such as the bald eagle, and the term generally carries no taxonomic weight. Most of the 68 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa. Outside this area, just 14 species can be foundâtwo in North America, nine in Central and South America, and three in Australia. Eagles are not a natural group but denote essentially any kind of bird of prey large enough to hunt sizeable (about 50 cm long or more overall) vertebrates. == Etymology == The word "eagle" is borrowed into English from Old French aigle, ultimately from Latin aquila. It is cognate with terms such as French aigle, Portuguese ĂĄguia and Spanish ĂĄguila. Historically, the native English term for eagle was "ern" (Old English: earn), derived from Proto-Germanic *arnuz, and thus cognate with other synonymous words in Germanic languages such as German Aar, Dutch arend, Swedish örn and Gothic đ°đđ° (ara). The term "ern" or "erne" is still used in Modern English in reference to some larger species of eagle, in particular the fish eagles. While some ornithologists may favor this term as a way to distinguish fish eagles from true eagles, all species of fish eagle (such as the bald eagle and white-tailed eagle) are still commonly referred to as "eagles".
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fish
Fantail Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
Fantail Guppy species information.
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fish
Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
The guppy (Poecilia reticulata), also known as the millionfish or rainbow fish, is a member of the family Poeciliidae and, akin to most New World members of the family, is considered a livebearer. Male guppies, which are smaller than females, have ornamental caudal and dorsal fins. Wild guppies generally feed on a variety of food sources, including benthic algae and the larvae of aquatic insects. Originating from northeast South America, it has been introduced to many environments and are now found all over the world; guppies are now one of the world's most widely distributed tropical fish and one of the most popular freshwater aquarium fish species. They are highly adaptable and thrive in many different environmental and ecological conditions. Guppies are used as a model organism in the fields of ecology, evolution, and behavioural studies. == Taxonomy == Guppies were first described in Venezuela as Poecilia reticulata by Wilhelm Peters in 1859 and as Lebistes poecilioides in Barbados by De Filippi in 1861. It was named Girardinus guppii by Albert GĂŒnther in honour of Robert John Lechmere Guppy, who sent specimens of the species from Trinidad to the Natural History Museum in London. It was reclassified as Lebistes reticulatus by Regan in 1913. Then in 1963, Rosen and Bailey brought it back to its original name, Poecilia reticulata.
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fish
Halfmoon Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
Halfmoon Guppy species information.
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reptile
Leopard Gecko
Eublepharis macularius
The leopard gecko or common leopard gecko is a ground-dwelling gecko native to the rocky dry grassland and desert regions of Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, India, and Nepal. The leopard gecko is a popular pet, and due to extensive captive breeding it is sometimes referred to as the first domesticated species of lizard.
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fish
Molly
Poecilia sphenops
Molly or mollies may refer to:
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fish
Mosaic Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
Mosaic Guppy species information.
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fish
Moscow Blue Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
Moscow Blue Guppy species information.
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fish
Moscow Purple Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
Moscow Purple Guppy species information.
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fish
Oscar
Astronotus ocellatus
Oscar, OSCAR, or The Oscar may refer to: == People and fictional and mythical characters == Oscar (given name), including lists of people and fictional characters named Oscar, Ăscar or Oskar Oscar (footballer, born 1954), Brazilian footballer JosĂ© Oscar Bernardi Oscar (footballer, born 1991), Brazilian footballer Oscar dos Santos Emboaba JĂșnior Oscar (Irish mythology), son of OisĂn and grandson of Finn mac Cumhall Oscar (wrestling), manager of Men on a Mission == Places in the United States == Oscar, Kentucky, an unincorporated community Oscar, Louisiana, an unincorporated community Oscar, Missouri, an unincorporated community Oscar, Oklahoma, an unincorporated community Oscar, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community Oscar, Texas, an unincorporated community Oscar, West Virginia, an unincorporated community Oscar Township, Otter Tail County, Minnesota, a civil township Lake Oscar (disambiguation) == Animals == Oscar (bionic cat), a cat that had implants after losing both hind paws Oscar (bull) (died 1983) a ProRodeo Hall of Fame bucking bull Oscar (fish), Astronotus ocellatus Oscar (therapy cat), a cat purported to predict the deaths of hospice patients Oscar, a nickname for Beast of Busco, a North American cryptid turtle Oscar, a nickname for Unsinkable Sam, a World War II ship's cat that survived three ships sinking == Arts and entertainment == === Film === Oscar, another name for an Academy Award The Oscar (film), starring Stephen Boyd Oscar (1967 film), starring Louis de FunĂšs Oscar (1991 film), starring Sylvester Stallone === Other uses in arts and entertainment === Oscar (opera), a 2013 opera about Oscar Wilde, by Theodore Morrison Oscar (video game), a 1993 platform game Oscar (TV serial), a 1985 British TV serial "Oscar" (Juliet Bravo), a 1980 television episode OSC OSCar, a music synthesizer manufactured by the Oxford Synthesizer Company Oscar (ballet), a ballet choreographed by Christopher Wheeldon == Military == Oscar, the letter O in the ICAO spelling alphabet (NATO phonetic alphabet) Oscar, Allied codename for the Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa, a World War II Japanese fighter aircraft Oscar-class submarine, a Soviet/Russian Navy submarine class Oscar (paradummy), American nickname for decoys dropped during the 1944 invasion of Normandy OSCAR (Optimum Survival Containment and Recovery), an escape pod project for the Vought F-8 Crusader fighter aircraft == Science and technology == OSCAR McMaster, an electronic medical record system OSCAR protocol, a protocol used by AOL Instant Messenger Open Source Cluster Application Resources, a Linux-based software installation OSCAR (gene), short for Osteoclast-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor Ocean Surface Current Analysis â Real time, a website that provides data on ocean currents OSCAR (Orbital Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio), a designation for amateur radio satellites == Transport == OScar, a project aiming to design an open source vehicle OScar (Danish automobile), a Danish sports car MSC Oscar, container ship Oscar, a a whaling ship sunk off Aberdeen in 1813 Outer Suburban CAR, a name for the NSW TrainLink H set, a type of electric train in Australia == Other uses == List of storms named Oscar, storms bearing this name Oscar Health, a U.S. health insurance company Out of School Care and Recreation OSCAR Radio, a school FM radio station in Northamptonshire, England == See also == All pages with titles beginning with Oscar All pages with titles containing Oscar Student Oscars (Student Academy Awards), the Student Film Awards King Oscar (disambiguation) Veal Oscar, a culinary creation Oskar (disambiguation) Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator (OSCR)
reptile
Panther Chameleon
Furcifer pardalis
The panther chameleon is a species of chameleon found in the eastern and northern parts of Madagascar in a tropical forest biome. Additionally, it has been introduced to RĂ©union and Mauritius, as well as the state of Florida within the United States.
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bird
Penguin
Aptenodytes forsteri
Penguins are a group of flightless, semi-aquatic, sea birds which live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere. Only one species, the GalĂĄpagos penguin, lives at, and slightly north of, the equator. Highly adapted for life in the ocean water, penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage and flippers for swimming. Most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid and other forms of sea life which they catch with their bills and swallow whole while swimming. A penguin has a spiny tongue and powerful jaws to grip slippery prey. They spend about half of their lives on land and the other half in the sea. The largest living species is the emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri): on average, adults are about 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) tall and weigh 35 kg (77 lb). The smallest penguin species is the little blue penguin (Eudyptula minor), also known as the fairy penguin, which stands around 30â33 cm (12â13 in) tall and weighs 1.2â1.3 kg (2.6â2.9 lb). Today, larger penguins generally inhabit colder regions, and smaller penguins inhabit regions with temperate or tropical climates. Some prehistoric penguin species were enormous: as tall or heavy as an adult human. There was a great diversity of species in subantarctic regions, and at least one giant species in a region around 2,000 km south of the equator 35 mya, during the Late Eocene, a climate decidedly warmer than today. == Etymology == The word penguin first appears in literature at the end of the 16th century as a synonym for the great auk. When European explorers discovered what are today known as penguins in the Southern Hemisphere, they noticed their similar appearance to the great auk of the Northern Hemisphere and named them after this bird, although they are not closely related. The etymology of the word penguin is still debated. The English word is not apparently of French, Breton or Spanish origin (the latter two are attributed to the French word pingouin), but first appears in English or Dutch. Some dictionaries suggest a derivation from Welsh pen, 'head' and gwyn, 'white', including the Oxford English Dictionary, the American Heritage Dictionary, the Century Dictionary and Merriam-Webster, on the basis that the name was originally applied to the great auk, either because it was found on White Head Island (Welsh: Pen Gwyn) in Newfoundland, or because it had white circles around its eyes (though the head was black). However, the Welsh word pen can also be used to mean 'end' and, in a maritime context, pen blaen means 'front end or part, bow (of a ship), prow'. An alternative etymology links the word to Latin pinguis, which means 'fat' or 'oil'. Support for this etymology can be found in the alternative Germanic word for penguin, fettgans or 'fat-goose', and the related Dutch word vetgans. A group of penguins in the water is sometimes called a raft. === Pinguinus === Since 1871, the Latin word Pinguinus has been used in scientific classification to name the genus of the great auk (Pinguinus impennis, meaning "plump or fat without flight feathers"), which became extinct in the mid-19th century. As confirmed by a 2004 genetic study, the genus Pinguinus belongs in the family of the auks (Alcidae), within the order of the Charadriiformes. The birds currently known as penguins were discovered later and were so named by sailors because of their physical resemblance to the great auk. Despite this resemblance, however, they are not auks, and are not closely related to the great auk. They do not belong in the genus Pinguinus, and are not classified in the same family and order as the great auk. They were classified in 1831 by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in several distinct genera within the family Spheniscidae and order Sphenisciformes. == Systematics and evolution == === Taxonomy === The family name of Spheniscidae was given by Charles Lucien Bonaparte from the genus Spheniscus, the name of that genus comes from the Greek word ÏÏÎźÎœ sphÄn "wedge" used for the shape of an African penguin's swimming flippers. Some recent sources apply the phylogenetic taxon Spheniscidae to what here is referred to as Spheniscinae. Furthermore, they restrict the phylogenetic taxon Sphenisciformes to flightless taxa, and establish the phylogenetic taxon Pansphenisciformes as equivalent to the Linnean taxon Sphenisciformes, i.e., including any flying basal "proto-penguins" to be discovered eventually. Given that neither the relationships of the penguin subfamilies to each other nor the placement of the penguins in the avian phylogeny is presently resolved, this is confusing, so the established Linnean system is followed here. The number of penguin species is typically listed as between seventeen and nineteen. The International Ornithologists' Union recognizes six genera and eighteen species: === Evolution === Although the evolutionary and biogeographic history of Sphenisciformes is well-researched, many prehistoric forms are not fully described. Some seminal articles about the evolutionary history of penguins have been published since 2005. The basal penguins lived around the time of the CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event in the general area of southern New Zealand and Byrd Land, Antarctica. Due to plate tectonics, these areas were at that time less than 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) apart rather than 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi). The most recent common ancestor of penguins and Procellariiformes can be roughly dated to the CampanianâMaastrichtian boundary, around 70â68 mya. ==== Basal fossils ==== The oldest known fossil penguin species are known from the Waipara Greensand of New Zealand, which spans the late Danian to early Thanetian stages (~62.5â58 Ma) of the Paleocene epoch. Several genera have been named from these outcrops, including Archaeodyptes, Daniadyptes, Muriwaimanu, Sequiwaimanu, Waimanu, Waimanutaha, and Waiparadyptes. While they were not as well-adapted to aquatic life as modern penguins, they were still flightless, with short wings adapted for deep diving. They swam on the surface using mainly their feet, but the wings wereâas opposed to most other diving birds (both living and extinct)âalready adapting to underwater locomotion. Perudyptes from northern Peru was dated to 42 mya. An unnamed fossil from Argentina proves that, by the Bartonian (Middle Eocene), some 39â38 mya, primitive penguins had spread to South America and were in the process of expanding into Atlantic waters. ==== Palaeeudyptines ==== During the Late Eocene and the Early Oligocene (40â30 mya), some lineages of gigantic penguins existed. Nordenskjoeld's giant penguin was the tallest, growing nearly 1.80 meters (5.9 feet) tall. The New Zealand giant penguin was probably the heaviest, weighing 80 kilograms (180 lb) or more. Both were found on New Zealand, the former also in the Antarctic farther eastwards. Traditionally, most extinct species of penguins, giant or small, had been placed in the paraphyletic subfamily called Palaeeudyptinae. More recently, with new taxa being discovered and placed in the phylogeny if possible, it is becoming accepted that there were at least two major extinct lineages. One or two closely related ones occurred in Patagonia, and at least one otherâwhich is or includes the paleeudyptines as recognized today â occurred on most Antarctic and Subantarctic coasts. Size plasticity was significant at this initial stage of radiation: on Seymour Island, Antarctica, for example, around 10 known species of penguins ranging in size from medium to large apparently coexisted some 35 mya during the Priabonian (Late Eocene). It is not known whether the palaeeudyptines constitute a monophyletic lineage, or whether gigantism was evolved independently in a restricted Palaeeudyptinae and the Anthropornithinae â whether they were considered valid, or whether there was a wide size range present in the Palaeeudyptinae as delimited (i.e., including Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi). The oldest well-described giant penguin, the 5-foot (1.5 m)-tall Icadyptes salasi, existed as far north as northern Peru about 36 mya. Gigantic penguins had disappeared by the end of the Paleogene, around 25 mya. Their decline and disappearance coincided with the spread of the Squalodontidae and other primitive, fish-eating toothed whales, which competed with them for food and were ultimately more successful. A new lineage, the Paraptenodytes, which includes smaller and stout-legged forms, had already arisen in southernmost South America by that time. The early Neogene saw the emergence of another morphotype in the same area, the similarly sized but more gracile Palaeospheniscinae, as well as the radiation that gave rise to the current biodiversity of penguins. ==== Origin and systematics of modern penguins ==== Modern penguins constitute two undisputed clades and another two more basal genera with more ambiguous relationships. To help resolve the evolution of this order, 19 high-coverage genomes that, together with two previously published genomes, encompass all extant penguin species have been sequenced. The origin of the Spheniscinae lies probably in the latest Paleogene and, geographically, it must have been much the same as the general area in which the order evolved: the oceans between the Australia-New Zealand region and the Antarctic. Presumably diverging from other penguins around 40 mya, it seems that the Spheniscinae were for quite some time limited to their ancestral area, as the well-researched deposits of the Antarctic Peninsula and Patagonia have not yielded Paleogene fossils of the subfamily. Also, the earliest spheniscine lineages are those with the most southern distribution. The genus Aptenodytes appears to be the basalmost divergence among living penguins. They have bright yellow-orange neck, breast, and bill patches; incubate by placing their eggs on their feet, and when they hatch the chicks are almost naked. This genus has a distribution centred on the Antarctic coasts and barely extends to some Subantarctic islands today. Pygoscelis contains species with a fairly simple black-and-white head pattern; their distribution is intermediate, centred on Antarctic coasts but extending somewhat northwards from there. In external morphology, these apparently still resemble the common ancestor of the Spheniscinae, as Aptenodytes' autapomorphies are, in most cases, fairly pronounced adaptations related to that genus' extreme habitat conditions. As the former genus, Pygoscelis seems to have diverged during the Bartonian, but the range expansion and radiation that led to the present-day diversity probably did not occur until much later; around the Burdigalian stage of the Early Miocene, roughly 20â15 mya. The genera Spheniscus and Eudyptula contain species with a mostly Subantarctic distribution centred on South America; some, however, range quite far northwards. They all lack carotenoid colouration and the former genus has a conspicuous banded head pattern; they are unique among living penguins by nesting in burrows. This group probably radiated eastwards with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current out of the ancestral range of modern penguins throughout the Chattian (Late Oligocene), starting approximately 28 mya. While the two genera separated during this time, the present-day diversity is the result of a Pliocene radiation, taking place some 4â2 mya. The MegadyptesâEudyptes clade occurs at similar latitudes (though not as far north as the GalĂĄpagos penguin), has its highest diversity in the New Zealand region, and represents a westward dispersal. They are characterized by hairy yellow ornamental head feathers; their bills are at least partly red. These two genera diverged apparently in the Middle Miocene (Langhian, roughly 15â14 mya), although the living species of Eudyptes are the product of a later radiation, stretching from about the late Tortonian (Late Miocene, 8 mya) to the end of the Pliocene. ==== Geography ==== The geographical and temporal pattern of spheniscine evolution corresponds closely to two episodes of global cooling documented in the paleoclimatic record. The emergence of the Subantarctic lineage at the end of the Bartonian corresponds with the onset of the slow period of cooling that eventually led to the ice ages some 35 million years later. With habitat on the Antarctic coasts declining, by the Priabonian more hospitable conditions for most penguins existed in the Subantarctic regions rather than in Antarctica itself. Notably, the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current also started as a continuous circumpolar flow only around 30 mya, on the one hand forcing the Antarctic cooling, and on the other facilitating the eastward expansion of Spheniscus to South America and eventually beyond. Despite this, there is no fossil evidence to support the idea of crown radiation from the Antarctic continent in the Paleogene, although DNA study favors such a radiation. Later, an interspersed period of slight warming was ended by the Middle Miocene Climate Transition, a sharp drop in global average temperature from 14 to 12 mya, and similar abrupt cooling events followed at 8 mya and 4 mya; by the end of the Tortonian, the Antarctic ice sheet was already much like today in volume and extent. The emergence of most of today's Subantarctic penguin species almost certainly was caused by this sequence of Neogene climate shifts. ==== Relationship to other bird orders ==== Penguin ancestry beyond Waimanu remains unknown and not well-resolved by molecular or morphological analyses. The latter tend to be confounded by the strong adaptive autapomorphies of the Sphenisciformes; a sometimes perceived fairly close relationship between penguins and grebes is almost certainly an error based on both groups' strong diving adaptations, which are homoplasies. On the other hand, different DNA sequence datasets do not agree in detail with each other either. What seems clear is that penguins belong to a clade of Neoaves (living birds except for paleognaths and fowl) that comprises what is sometimes called "higher waterbirds" to distinguish them from the more ancient waterfowl. This group contains such birds as storks, rails, and the seabirds, with the possible exception of the Charadriiformes. Inside this group, penguin relationships are far less clear. Depending on the analysis and dataset, a close relationship to Ciconiiformes or to Procellariiformes has been suggested. Some think the penguin-like plotopterids (usually considered relatives of cormorants and anhingas) may actually be a sister group of the penguins and those penguins may have ultimately shared a common ancestor with the Pelecaniformes and consequently would have to be included in that order, or that the plotopterids were not as close to other pelecaniforms as generally assumed, which would necessitate splitting the traditional Pelecaniformes into three. A 2014 analysis of whole genomes of 48 representative bird species has concluded that penguins are the sister group of Procellariiformes, from which they diverged about 60 million years ago (95% CI, 56.8â62.7). The distantly related Charadriiform puffins, which live in the North Pacific and North Atlantic, developed similar characteristics to survive in the Arctic and sub-Arctic environments. Like the penguins, puffins have a white chest, black back and short stubby wings providing excellent swimming ability in icy water. But, unlike penguins, puffins can fly, as flightless birds would not survive alongside land-based predators such as polar bears and foxes; there are no such predators in the Antarctic. Their similarities indicate that similar environments in different parts of the world can result in similar evolutionary developments, i.e. convergent evolution. Puffins are auks (Alcidae), akin to the aforementioned great auk, which have a greater resemblance to "true" penguins after converging on more features of their anatomy. == Anatomy and physiology == Penguins are superbly adapted to aquatic life. Their wings have evolved to become flippers, useless for flight in the air. In the water, however, penguins are astonishingly agile. Penguins' swimming looks very similar to birds' flight in the air. Within the smooth plumage a layer of air is preserved, ensuring buoyancy. The air layer also helps insulate the birds in cold waters. On land, penguins use their tails and wings to maintain balance for their upright stance. All penguins are countershaded for camouflage â that is, they have black backs and wings with white fronts. A predator looking up from below (such as an orca or a leopard seal) has difficulty distinguishing between a white penguin belly and the reflective water surface. The dark plumage on their backs camouflages them from above. Gentoo penguins are the fastest underwater birds in the world. They are capable of reaching speeds up to 36 km (about 22 miles) per hour while searching for food or escaping from predators. They are also able to dive to depths of 170â200 meters (about 560â660 feet). The small penguins do not usually dive deep; they catch their prey near the surface in dives that normally last only one or two minutes. Larger penguins can dive deep in case of need. Emperor penguins are the world's deepest-diving birds. They can dive to depths of approximately 550 meters (1,800 feet) while searching for food. Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow while using their feet to propel and steer themselves, a movement called "tobogganing", which conserves energy while moving quickly. They also jump with both feet together if they want to move more quickly or cross steep or rocky terrain. Penguins have an average sense of hearing for birds; this is used by parents and chicks to locate one another in crowded colonies. Their eyes are adapted for underwater vision and are their primary means of locating prey and avoiding predators; in air it has been suggested that they are nearsighted, although research has not supported this hypothesis. Penguins have a thick layer of insulating feathers that keeps them warm in water (heat loss in water is much greater than in air). The emperor penguin has a maximum feather density of about nine feathers per square centimeter which is actually much lower than other birds that live in Antarctic environments. However, they have been identified as having at least four different types of feather: in addition to the traditional feather, the emperor has afterfeathers, plumules, and filoplumes. The afterfeathers are downy plumes that attach directly to the main feathers and were once thought to account for the bird's ability to conserve heat when under water; the plumules are small down feathers that attach directly to the skin, and are much more dense in penguins than other birds; lastly the filoplumes are small (less than 1 cm long) naked shafts that end in a splay of fibersâ filoplumes were thought to give flying birds a sense of where their plumage was and whether or not it needed preening, so their presence in penguins may seem inconsistent, but penguins also preen extensively. The emperor penguin has the largest body mass of all penguins, which further reduces relative surface area and heat loss. They also are able to control blood flow to their extremities, reducing the amount of blood that gets cold, but still keeping the extremities from freezing. In the extreme cold of the Antarctic winter, the females are at sea fishing for food, leaving the males to brave the weather by themselves. They often huddle together to keep warm and rotate positions to make sure that each penguin gets a turn in the centre of the heat pack. Calculations of the heat loss and retention ability of marine endotherms suggest that most extant penguins are too small to survive in such cold environments. In 2007, Thomas and Fordyce wrote about the "heterothermic loophole" that penguins utilize in order to survive in Antarctica. All extant penguins, even those that live in warmer climates, have a counter-current heat exchanger called the humeral plexus. The flippers of penguins have at least three branches of the axillary artery, which allows cold blood to be heated by blood that has already been warmed and limits heat loss from the flippers. This system allows penguins to efficiently use their body heat and explains why such small animals can survive in the extreme cold. They can drink salt water because their supraorbital gland filters excess salt from the bloodstream. The salt is excreted in a concentrated fluid from the nasal passages. Around one in 50,000 penguins (of most species) are born with brown rather than black plumage. These are called isabelline penguins. Isabellinism is different from albinism. Isabelline penguins tend to live shorter lives than normal penguins, as they are not well-camouflaged against the deep and are often passed over as mates. == Behaviour == === Breeding === Penguins for the most part breed in large colonies, the exceptions being the yellow-eyed and Fiordland species; these colonies may range in size from as few as 100 pairs for gentoo penguins to several hundred thousand in the case of king, macaroni and chinstrap penguins. Living in colonies results in a high level of social interaction between birds, which has led to a large repertoire of visual as well as vocal displays in all penguin species. Agonistic displays are those intended to confront or drive off, or alternately appease and avoid conflict with, other individuals. Penguins form monogamous pairs for a breeding season, though the rate the same pair recouples varies drastically. Most penguins lay two eggs in a clutch, although the two largest species, the emperor and the king penguins, lay only one. With the exception of the emperor penguin, where the male does it all, all penguins share the incubation duties. These incubation shifts can last days and even weeks as one member of the pair feeds at sea. Penguins generally only lay one brood; the exception is the little penguin, which can raise two or three broods in a season. Penguin eggs are smaller than any other bird species when compared proportionally to the weight of the parent birds; at 52 g (2 oz), the little penguin egg is 4.7% of its mothers' weight, and the 450 g (1 lb) emperor penguin egg is 2.3%. The relatively thick shell forms between 10 and 16% of the weight of a penguin egg, presumably to reduce the effects of dehydration and to minimize the risk of breakage in an adverse nesting environment. The yolk, too, is large and comprises 22â31% of the egg. Some yolk often remains when a chick is born, and is thought to help sustain the chick if the parents are delayed in returning with food. When emperor penguin mothers lose a chick, they sometimes attempt to "steal" another mother's chick, usually unsuccessfully as other females in the vicinity assist the defending mother in keeping her chick. In some species, such as emperor and king penguins, the chicks assemble in large groups called crĂšches. == Distribution and habitat == Although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin actually live so far south. Several species live in the temperate zone; one, the GalĂĄpagos penguin, lives as far north as the GalĂĄpagos Islands, but this is only made possible by the cold, rich waters of the Antarctic Humboldt Current that flows around these islands. Also, though the climate of the Arctic and Antarctic regions is similar, there are no penguins found in the Arctic. Several authors have suggested that penguins are a good example of Bergmann's Rule where larger-bodied populations live at higher latitudes than smaller-bodied populations. There is some disagreement about this and several other authors have noted that there are fossil penguin species that contradict this hypothesis and that ocean currents and upwellings are likely to have had a greater effect on species diversity than latitude alone. Major populations of penguins are found in Angola, Antarctica, Argentina, Australia, Chile, Namibia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Satellite images and photos released in 2018 show the population of 2 million in France's remote Ile aux Cochons has collapsed, with barely 200,000 remaining, according to a study published in Antarctic Science. === Conservation status === The majority of living penguin species have declining populations. According to the IUCN Red List, their conservation statuses range from Least Concern through to Endangered. == Penguins and humans == Penguins have no special fear of humans and will often approach groups of people. This is probably because penguins have no land predators in Antarctica or the nearby offshore islands. They are preyed upon by other birds like skuas, especially in eggs and as fledglings. Other birds like petrels, sheathbills, and gulls also eat the chicks. Dogs preyed upon penguins while they were allowed in Antarctica during the age of early human exploration as sled dogs, but dogs have long since been banned from Antarctica. Instead, adult penguins are at risk at sea from predators such as sharks, orcas, and leopard seals. Typically, penguins do not approach closer than around 9 feet (2.7 meters), at which point they appear to become nervous. In June 2011, an emperor penguin came ashore on New Zealand's Peka Peka Beach, 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) off course on its journey to Antarctica. Nicknamed Happy Feet, after the film of the same name, it was suffering from heat exhaustion and had to undergo a number of operations to remove objects like driftwood and sand from its stomach. Happy Feet was a media sensation, with extensive coverage on TV and the web, including a live stream that had thousands of views and a visit from English actor Stephen Fry. Once he had recovered, Happy Feet was released back into the water south of New Zealand. === In popular culture === Penguins are widely considered endearing for their unusually upright, waddling gait, swimming ability and (compared to other birds) lack of fear of humans. Their black-and-white plumage is often likened to a white tie suit. Some writers and artists have penguins based at the North Pole, but there are no wild penguins in the Arctic. The cartoon series Chilly Willy helped perpetuate this myth, as the title penguin would interact with Arctic or sub-Arctic species, such as polar bears and walruses. Penguins have been the subject of many books and films, such as Happy Feet, Surf's Up and Penguins of Madagascar, all CGI films; March of the Penguins, a documentary based on the migration process of the emperor penguin; and Farce of the Penguins, a parody of the documentary. Mr. Popper's Penguins is a children's book written by Richard and Florence Atwater; it was named a Newbery Honor Book in 1939. Penguins have also appeared in a number of cartoons and television dramas, including Pingu, co-created by Otmar Gutmann and Erika Brueggemann in 1990 and covering more than 100 short episodes. At the end of 2009, Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, saying, "Whether they were walking (March of the Penguins), dancing (Happy Feet), or hanging ten (Surf's Up), these oddly adorable birds took flight at the box office all decade long." A video game called Pengo was released by Sega in 1982. Set in Antarctica, the player controls a penguin character who must navigate mazes of ice cubes. The player is rewarded with cut-scenes of animated penguins marching, dancing, saluting and playing peekaboo. Several remakes and enhanced editions have followed, most recently in 2012. Penguins are also sometimes depicted in music. In 1941, DC Comics introduced the avian-themed character of the Penguin as a supervillain adversary of the superhero Batman (Detective Comics #58). He became one of the most enduring enemies in Batman's rogues gallery. In the 60s Batman TV series, as played by Burgess Meredith, he was one of the most popular characters, and in Tim Burton's reimagining of the story, the character played by Danny Devito in the 1992 film Batman Returns, employed an actual army of penguins (mostly African penguins and king penguins). Several pro, minor, college and high school sport teams in the United States have named themselves after the species, including the Pittsburgh Penguins team in the National Hockey League and the Youngstown State Penguins in college athletics. Penguins featured regularly in the cartoons of U.K. cartoonist Steve Bell in his strip in The Guardian newspaper, particularly during and following the Falklands War. Opus the Penguin, from the cartoons of Berkeley Breathed, is also described as hailing from the Falklands. Opus was a comical, "existentialist" penguin character in the cartoons Bloom County, Outland and Opus. He was also the star in the animated Christmas TV special A Wish for Wings That Work. In the mid-2000s, penguins became one of the most publicized species of animals that form lasting homosexual couples. A children's book, And Tango Makes Three, was written about one such penguin family in the New York Zoo. == References == == Bibliography == Williams; Tony D. (1995). The Penguins â Spheniscidae. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-854667-2. == External links == Two new fossil penguin species found in Peru. news.nationalgeographic.com Information about penguins at pinguins.info Integrated Taxonomic Information System (archived February 17, 2006) Penguin information on 70South (archived March 15, 2006) Penguin research projects on the web Penguin videos and photos on the Internet Bird Collection (archived December 27, 2015) Penguin World Penguins in Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand the Encyclopedia of New Zealand (archived September 5, 2008) Seaworld Penguin Information (archived October 17, 2013) "Lessons in a Land of Wind and Ice" from National Wildlife Magazine 1/15/2010 Curious Penguins Live 24/7 camera inside a penguin habitat
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Veiltail Guppy
Poecilia reticulata
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